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PRTIMCTPLFS „/
LANGUAGE LFARNTNG
AND TFACHTNG
FOURTH EDITION
H. DOUGLAS BROWN
San Francisco State University
Principles of Language Learning and Teaching, Fourth Edition
Copyright © 2000 by Addison Wesley Longman, Inc. A Pearson Education Company. All rights reserved.
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Brown, H. Douglas,
Principles of language learning and teaching / H. Douglas Brown. - 4th ed. p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-13-017816-0 (alk. paper)
1. Language and languages-Study and teaching. 2. Language acquisition. I. Title.
P51.B775 2000 4l8'.0071-dc21
99-058205
23456789 10-DOH-05 04 03 02 01 00
Contents V
Topics and Questions for Study and Discussion, 109 Suggested Readings, 110
Language Learning Experience:Journal Entry 4,111
5 Styles and Strategies 112
Process, Style, and Strategy, 112 Learning Styles, 113
Field Independence, 114
Left- and Right-Brain Functioning, 118
Ambiguity Tolerance ,119
Reflectivity and Impulsivity, 121
Visual and Auditory Styles, 122 Strategies, 122
Learning Strategies, 124
Communication Strategies, 127
Avoidance Strategies, 129 Compensatory Strategies, 129 Strategies-Based Instruction, 130
In the Classroom: Styles and Strategies in Practice, 135 Topics and Questions for Study and Discussion, 139 Suggested Readings, 140
Language Learning Experience:Journal Entry 5,141
6 Personality Factors 142
The Affective Domain, 143
Self-Esteem, 145
Inhibition, 147
Risk-Taking, 149
Anxiety, 150
Empathy, 152
Extroversion, 154 Myers-Briggs Character Types, 156 Motivation, 160
Instrumental and Integrative Orientations, 162
Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation, 164 The Neurobiology of Affect, 166 Measuring Affective Factors, 167
Ln the Classroom: Putting Methods into Perspective, 169 Topics and Questions for Study and Discussion, 172 Suggested Readings, 174
Language Learning Experience:Journal Entry 6,175
VÎ Contents
7 Sociocultural Factors 176
From Stereotypes to Generalizations, 178 Attitudes, 180
Second Culture Acquisition, 182 Social Distance, 185 Culture in the Classroom, 189 Language Policy and Politics, 191
World Englishes, 192
ESL and EFL, 193
Linguistic Imperialism and Language Rights, 194 Language Policy and the "English Only" Debate, 195 Language,Thought, and Culture, 196
In the Classroom: Toward a Principled Approach to Language Pedagogy, 201 Topics and Questions for Study and Discussion, 203 Suggested Readings, 204
Language Learning Experience:Journal Entry 7,206
8 Cross-Linguistic Influence and Learner Language 207
The Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis, 207
From the CAH to CLI (Cross-Linguistic Influence), 211
Markedness and Universal Grammar, 213
Learner Language, 215
Error Analysis, 216
Mistakes and Errors, 217 Errors in Error Analysis, 218 Identifying and Describing Errors, 220 Sources of Error, 223
Interlingual Transfer, 224 Intralingual Transfer, 224 Context of Learning, 226 Communication Strategies, 227 Stages of Learner Language Development, 227 Variability in Learner Language, 229 Fossilization, 231 Form-Focused Instruction, 233 Error Treatment, 235
In the Classroom: A Model for Error Treatment, 239 Topics and Questions for Study and Discussion, 242 Suggested Readings, 243
Language Learning Experience:Journal Entry 8,244
Contents vil
9 Communicative Competence 245
Defining Communicative Competence, 246 Language Functions, 248 Functional Syllabuses, 252 Discourse Analysis, 253
Conversation Analysis, 255 Pragmatics, 257
Language and Gender, 259 Styles and Registers, 260 Nonverbal Communication, 262
Kinesics, 262
Eye Contact, 263
Proxemics, 264
Artifacts, 264
Kinesthetics, 264
Olfactory Dimensions, 265 In the Classroom: Communicative Language Teaching, 266 Topics and Questions for Study and Discussion, 267 Suggested Readings, 269
Language Learning Experience:Journal Entry 9,270
10 Theories of Second Language Acquisition 271
Building a Theory of SLA, 272
Domains and Generalizations, 272
Hypotheses and Claims, 274
Criteria for a Viable Theory, 276 An Innatist Model: Krashen's Input Hypothesis, 277 Cognitive Models, 281
McLaughlin's Attention-Processing Model, 282
Implicit and Explicit Models, 285 A Social-Constructivist Model: Long's Interaction Hypothesis, 286 From Theory to Practice, 288
Out on a Limb: The Ecology of Language Acquisition, 294 Topics and Questions for Study and Discussion, 296 Suggested Readings, 298
Language Learning Experience: Final Journal Entry, 299
Bibliography, 301 Index, 343
ix
PREFACE TO THE FOURTH EDITION
W
hen the first edition of Principles of Language Learning and Teaching appeared in 1980, the field of second language acquisition (SLA) was relatively manageable. We had a handful of professional journals devoted to SLA, a good collection of anthologies and conference proceedings, and a small but respectable number of books on SLA and teaching. Today the field of SLA has so many branches and subfields and specializations that it is virtually impossible to "manage"!
In the December 1997 issue of the semi-annually published Second Language Instruction/Acquisition Abstracts, 180 periodicals were surveyed and 240 book reviews cited. Some thirty major subject matter areas included child language acquisition, non-native language pedagogy, testing, literacy studies, reading processes and instruction, writing, bilingualism, bilingual education, translation, pragmatics, discourse analysis, specific languages, lexicology, interpersonal behavior and communication, sociolin-guistics, language planning, nonverbal language, and more. And several major fields were subsumed into other topics: psycholinguistics, intercul-tural communication, world Englishes, curriculum design, and critical pedagogy, among others. Incidentally, the December 1997 issue of the above mentioned abstracting journal was the last issue that was printed in hard copy; now, the material has to be electronically downloaded because there is more information than print media can handle!
Today we can see that the manageable stockpile of research of just a few decades ago has been replaced by a coordinated, systematic storehouse of information. Subfields have been defined and explored. Researchers around the world are meeting, talking, exchanging findings, comparing data, and arriving at some mutually acceptable explanations. A remarkable number of respectable, refereed journals are printing the best and most interesting of this research. Our research miscarriages are fewer as we have collectively learned how to conceive the right questions.
9
X Preface
At the same time, we should not be too smug.The wonderful intricacy of complex facets of human behavior will be very much with us for some time. Roger Brown's (1966: 326) wry remark of a number of decades ago still applies:
Psychologists find it exciting when a complex mental phenomenon—something intelligent and slippery—seems about to be captured by a mechanical model. We yearn to see the model succeed. But when, at the last minute, the phenomenon proves too much for the model and darts off on some uncapturable tangent, there is something in us that rejoices at the defeat.
We can rejoice in our defeats because we know that it is the very elusive-ness of this phenomenon of SLA that makes the quest for answers so exciting. Our field of inquiry is no simple, unidimensional reality. It is "slippery" in every way.
PURPOSE AND AUDIENCE
Principles of Language Learning and Teaching is designed to give you a picture of both the slipperiness of SLA and the systematic storehouse of reliable knowledge that is now available to us. As you consider the issues, chapter by chapter, you are led on a quest for your own personal, integrated understanding of how people learn—and sometimes fail to learn—a second language.That quest is eclectic: no single theory or hypothesis will provide a magic formula for all learners in all contexts. And the quest is cautious: you will be urged to be as critical as you can in considering the merit of various models and theories and research findings. By the end of the final chapter, you will no doubt surprise yourself on how many pieces of this giant puzzle you can actually put together!
In its first three editions, this book has served a number of purposes for many audiences around the world. For graduates or advanced undergraduates in language-teacher education programs, it is a textbook on the theoretical foundations of language teaching. For a surprising number of people it has become a book that Master's degree candidates pore over in preparation for comprehensive examinations! For experienced teachers, it has become a handbook that provides an overview of current issues in the field.
For the most part, you do not need to have prior technical knowledge of linguistics or psychology in order to comprehend this book. An attempt has been made to build, from the beginning, on what an educated person knows about the world, life, people, and communication. And the book can be used in programs for educating teachers of any foreign language, even
Preface XI
though many illustrative examples here are in English since that is the language common to all readers.
CHANGES IN THE FOURTH EDITION
The first question people ask me when they hear that a new edition is about to appear is:"What changes will you make?" In anticipation of these questions about the Fourth Edition, I offer the following highlights:
1. Updated topics and references. In a field growing as rapidly as ours, a period of six or seven years sees many advances. The current edition features some new topics: constructivist approaches to SLA, new data on the critical period hypothesis, emotional intelligence, language aptitude, strategies-based instruction (SBI), the neurobiology of affect, language policy and politics, intercultural communication, cross-linguistic influence, form-focused instruction, and Long's Interaction Hypothesis, to name a few. Other topics have been updated to reflect current work in the field. And out of literally thousands of new articles, books, and chapters that have appeared since the last edition, I have added a selection of some 200 new bibliographic references that report the latest work in SLA.
2. Reorganized chapters. If you were just getting used to the Third Edition, be prepared to look carefully at the new edition.The process of revising has involved a reorganization of a substantial proportion of the material.
3. Deletion of the chapter on Language Testing (10). An overwhelming number of readers and reviewers have stated that the Testing chapter cannot be covered within the scope of a term of coursework. I have therefore deleted that chapter and placed it, in revised form, into the new Second Edition of my companion textbook, Teaching by Principles. What was Chapter 11 in the Third Edition has become Chapter 10 here.
4. Redesigned teacher-friendly end-of-chapter exercises. In previous editions, the end-of-chapter exercises were designed for individual contemplation and possibly for teachers to adapt to classroom discussion. In this edition, new and improved classroom-tested exercises are explicitly designed for in-class group work, pair work, whole-class discussion, and individual work.
5. More accessible suggestions for further reading. In this edition the suggestions for further reading now more effectively target an audience of students just beginning in the field of SLA. Few esoteric, technical articles are listed, and instead students are led to more reader-friendly material.
xii Preface
6. Journal guidelines for a language learning experience. I have always recommended that the information in a book like this is best internalized if the reader is concurrently taking a course in a foreign language. At the end of each chapter in this edition is a new section that offers classroom-tested journal-writing guidelines for the reader either to reflect on a current experience learning another language or to take a retrospective look at a previous foreign language learning experience. In both cases, the reader is asked to apply concepts and constructs and models to a personal experience learning a foreign language.
7. Revised end-of-chapter "In the Classroom" vignettes. As in the Third Edition, these vignettes provide information on various pedagogical applications and implications of second language research.The first four vignettes describe a historical progression of language-teaching methods; the other chapters deal with related classroom implications of the information in the chapter itself. A new vignette—a model for classroom error treatment—has been added to Chapter 8.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This book has grown out of graduate courses in second language acquisition that I have taught at San Francisco State University, the University of Illinois, and the University of Michigan. My first debt of gratitude is therefore to my students—for their insights, enthusiasm, and support. They offered invaluable comments on the first three editions of the book, and I have attempted to incorporate those insights into this Fourth Edition. I always learn so much from my students!
I am also grateful to facul...
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